Note:  The listing of a course in the Calendar is not a guarantee that the course is offered every year.

Note:  Students must obtain a grade of at least C- in all courses used to fulfill prerequisite requirements. Otherwise, written permission of the appropriate Department Head or Program Co-ordinator must be obtained.

Note:  The following courses are subject to an instructional supply fee - BIOL 1001, 1501, 2101, 2201, 2301, 2401, 2601, 2701, 3031, 3111, 3201, 3211, 3351, 3361, 3371, 3401, 4411, 3621, 3631, 3651, 3751, 3991 (Molecular Tools in Ecology), 4111.

BIOL 1001 (3.00)
Foundations of Biology
This course introduces the fundamentals of organismal biology: the scientific method, principles of evolution including Darwin's theory of natural selection, adaptations in organismal form and function, biodiversity, the interactions of organisms with their environment, and the practices of scientific communication. [Note 1: This course is designed for science majors. Students who intend to continue to study in Biology should note the need to complete BIOC 1001 as a prerequisite for BIOL 1501.] (Format: Lecture 3 Hours, Laboratory 3 Hours) (Exclusion: Any version of BIOL 1001 previously offered with a different title)

BIOL 1201 (3.00)
Human Biology
A lecture and laboratory course based on the application of biological principles to practical human concerns. It will introduce the development, structure and function of the human body, and mechanisms involved in degenerative infectious diseases. This will be followed by a discussion of human reproduction and genetics. The impact of evolutionary theory on our understanding of the human species will be presented, as well as the interdependence between natural ecosystems and human activities. Threats to the environment through pollution and overpopulation will be discussed. (Format: Lecture 3 Hours) [Note 1: This course is restricted to non-science majors. Science majors require the instructor's permission to enrol.]

BIOL 1501 (3.00)
Cell Biology
Prereq: BIOC 1001; or permission of the Department
This course introduces the structure, organization and functions of the cell, which is the fundamental structural and functional unit of living organisms. It places particular emphasis on eukaryotic cells. Topics include: membranes and organelles, communication within and between cells, membrane transport, the cell cycle, meiosis and mitosis. (Format: Lecture 3 Hours, Laboratory 3 Hours)

BIOL 1991 (3.00)
Special Topic in Biology
This course either focuses on topics not covered by the current course offerings in a department or program or offers the opportunity to pilot a course that is being considered for inclusion in the regular program. (Format: Variable) [Note 1: Prerequisite set by the Department/Program when the topic and level are announced. Note 2: When a Department or Program intends to offer a course under this designation, it must submit course information, normally at least three months in advance, to the Dean. Note 3: Students may register for BIOL 1991 more than once, provided the subject matter differs.]

BIOL 2101 (3.00)
Introduction to Ecology
Prereq: BIOL 1001; BIOL 1501 strongly recommended; or permission of the Department
This course introduces current concepts of population and community ecology using local ecosystems and organisms, principally aquatic insects, whenever possible. (Format: Lecture 3 Hours, Laboratory 3 Hours) (Exclusion: Any version of BIOL 2101 previously offered with a different title)

BIOL 2201 (3.00)
Form and Function: Microorganisms
Prereq: 3 credits from BIOL 1501, BIOC 2001; or permission of the Department
This course surveys the evolutionary and functional diversity of the Archaea, Bacteria, and selected eukaryotic microbes, examining the cellular structures and metabolic processes characteristic of each group, and how these characteristics allow humans to control and use microbial growth. The course also examines how genomic sequencing is altering our views of microbial evolution and ecology. (Format: Lecture 3 Hours, Laboratory 3 Hours; Exclusion: BIOL 3101)

BIOL 2301 (3.00)
Form and Function: Plants
Prereq: BIOL 1001; BIOL 1501 strongly recommended; or permission of the Department
This course introduces the structure and function of plants with an emphasis on vascular plants. Topics include comparative anatomy, development and functional adaptations to the environment, and how genomic sequencing is altering our views of plant evolution and ecology. (Format: Lecture 3 Hours, Laboratory 3 Hours) (Exclusion: Any version of BIOL 2301 previously offered with a different title)

BIOL 2401 (3.00)
Form and Function: Animals
Prereq: BIOL 1001; BIOL 1501; or permission of the Department
This course introduces students to the structure and function of major groups of invertebrate and vertebrate animals on a comparative basis by observation of both preserved and living material. Topics include comparative anatomy and phylogeny, and the evolution and function of locomotory, digestive, excretory, respiratory, nervous and reproductive systems.(Format: Lecture 3 Hours, Laboratory 3 Hours) (Exclusion: Any version of BIOL 2401 previously offered with a different title)

BIOL 2601 (3.00)
Genetics
Prereq: BIOL 1501; or permission of the Department
An introduction to genetics which will address the seemingly paradoxical phenomena of genetic continuity and genetic variation of living beings. This will be achieved by examining the cellular and molecular basis of gene replication, recombination and mutation. Viruses, bacteria and eukaryotes of various levels of organismic complexity will serve as examples both in lectures and laboratories. (Format: Lecture 3 Hours, Laboratory 3 Hours)

BIOL 2701 (3.00)
Introductory Design & Statistical Analysis
Prereq: 3 credits from BIOL 1001, 1501; MATH 1111; or permission of the Department
This course introduces data analysis, the principles of experimental design and the formulating and testing of hypotheses. It describes graphical and statistical (t-test, chi-square test, ANOVA) analyses of laboratory and field collected data, and discusses their appropriate use in Biology. [Note 1: Data management and statistical analyses uses Excel and R.](Format: Lecture 3 Hours and Tutorial 1.5 Hours) (Exclusion: BIOL 3701; any version of BIOL 2701 previously offered with a different title)

BIOL 2801 (3.00)
Evolution
Prereq: BIOL 1001; BIOL 1501; BIOL 2601 recommended; or permission of the Department
This course investigates modern theories of biological evolution at all levels. It presents methods employed to describe and assess genetic variation within and between populations. Comprehension of presented concepts requires an understanding of Mendelian genetics and mechanisms of inheritance, sources of genetic variability in natural populations, natural selection, and genetic equilibrium of populations. (Format: Lecture 3 Hours) (Exclusion: BIOL 3011)

BIOL 2991 (3.00)
Special Topic in Biology
This course either focuses on topics not covered by the current course offerings in a department or program or offers the opportunity to pilot a course that is being considered for inclusion in the regular program. (Format: Variable) [Note 1: Prerequisite set by the Department/Program when the topic and level are announced. Note 2: When a Department or Program intends to offer a course under this designation, it must submit course information, normally at least three months in advance, to the Dean. Note 3: Students may register for BIOL 2991 more than once, provided the subject matter differs.]

BIOL 3021 (3.00)
Palaeontology
Prereq: BIOL 2301; BIOL 2401; or permission of the Department
This course provides an overview of the major fossil plant and animal taxa in the context of the history of macroscopic and microscopic forms of life on Earth. It discusses morphology and anatomy of organisms in relation to accompanying changes in marine and terrestrial environments and when appropriate it emphasizes diagnostic features of the organisms used as time (biostratigraphy) and/or environmental (paleoecology) indicators. (Format: Lecture 3 Hours, Laboratory 3 Hours) (Exclusion: GENS 3991 Introduction to Palaeontology)

BIOL 3031 (3.00)
Molecular Analyses
Prereq: BIOC 2001; or permission of the Department
This course focuses on experiential analysis and computer modeling of key concepts of the molecular basis of biology, including nucleic acid structure, synthesis, and replication through template-directed polymerizations. The course builds on these key concepts to explore gene structure, expression, and engineering, leading to the wide-ranging applications of molecular biology to biology, medicine, and diagnostics. [Note 1: This course is cross-listed with BIOC 3031 and may therefore count as 3 credits in either discipline. Note 2: This course is required for students completing a Major or Honours in Biochemistry. It is open to students from other programs on a space available basis, provided that the student has met the prerequisite requirement.] (Format: Integrated Lecture and Laboratory, 6 Hours) (Exclusion: BIOC 3021; BIOC 3531)

BIOL 3051 (3.00)
Molecular Immunology
Prereq: BIOC 2001; or permission of the Department
This course explains the core molecular structures of the immune system: antibodies and their interactions with antigens. It places these molecular interactions in the context of the cells and tissues of the immune system and the signaling cascades that regulate immune responses. The course concludes with topics in immunology and applications of immunochemistry. [Note 1: This course is cross-listed with BIOC 3051 and may therefore count as three credits in either discipline.] (Format: Lecture 3 Hours)(Exclusion: BIOC 4011)

BIOL 3111 (3.00)
Environmental Microbiology
Prereq: 3 credits from BIOL 2201, BIOC 2001
This course covers the ecophysiology of microorganisms. The course surveys the key functional microbial groups which mediate major steps in the biogeochemical cycles, their ecological requirements and factors limiting their growth and activity. This leads to discussion of the roles of microorganisms in current issues in biology, industry and environmental science. (Format: Integrated Lecture and Laboratory 6 Hours) (Exclusion: Any version of BIOL 3111 previously offered with a different title)

BIOL 3201 (3.00)
Animal Physiology; Adaptation and Environment
Prereq: BIOL 2401; BIOL 2701; or permission of the Department
This course focuses on the physiological processes underpinning a monumental step in the evolution of the vertebrates, the transition from water to land. It examines the respiratory, circulatory, acid-base and osmoregulatory adaptations seen in fish to mammals and studies the integration of animal physiology with the environment by investigating metabolism and temperature. (Format: Lecture 3 Hours, Laboratory 3 Hours)

BIOL 3211 (3.00)
Human Physiology
Prereq: Third-year standing; BIOL 1501; or permission of the Department
This course provides a comprehensive study of the physiology of the human body. It examines the function of the nervous, muscular, sensory, endocrine, respiratory, cardiovascular, and renal systems. [Note: Laboratory exercises with students as participants in experiments complement the course material and advance students' knowledge of important physiological processes.] (Format: Lecture 3 Hours, Laboratory 3 Hours) (Exclusions: Any version of BIOL 3201 offered prior to 2015-2016; Any version of BIOL 3211 previously offered with a different title)

BIOL 3221 (3.00)
Human Anatomy
Prereq: BIOL 2401
This course examines the structural organization of the human body, including the integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems. It investigates these systems in the context of human health and disease. (Format: Lecture 3 Hours) (Exclusion BIOL 3991 Human Anatomy)

BIOL 3301 (3.00)
Physiological Plant Ecology
Prereq: BIOL 2101; BIOL 2301; or permission of the Department
This course examines the ways by which plants respond to their environments. Topics include a discussion of transpiration and heat transfer, photosynthesis in nature, vernalization, photoperiodism and response to stresses such as drought, temperature, salinity and pollutants. (Format: Lecture and Laboratory 3 Hours) (Exclusion: BIOL 4301)

BIOL 3351 (3.00)
Marine Botany
Prereq: BIOL 2301; or permission of the Department
A lecture, laboratory, and field course summarizing recent advances in our understanding of macroscopic plant growth in the sea. This progress has been based upon studies involving morphology, development, physiology, and ecology. The following topics will be emphasized: the sea as an environment for plants to grow, production of marine plants, morphogenesis and geographic distribution of marine plants, and use of marine plants. (Format: Lecture 3 Hours, Laboratory 3 Hours)

BIOL 3361 (3.00)
Marine Biology I: Coastal Systems
Prereq: BIOL 2101; 2401; or permission of the Department
This course investigates the ecology of estuarine, intertidal, and subtidal ecosystems at the individual, population and community level. Topics include community structure, food webs, reproductive biology of benthic organisms, and effects of physical and anthropogenic factors. [Note: The course includes a field trip to the Huntsman Marine Sciences Centre in St. Andrews, N.B. Students are expected to contribute to their accommodation costs.] (Format: Lecture 3 Hours, Field Trip)

BIOL 3371 (3.00)
Principles of Aquaculture
Prereq: BIOL 2401; or permission of the Department
This course introduces the history, practice, and future of aquaculture with particular emphasis on development of finfish aquaculture in Atlantic Canada. Topics include biology of growth, culture of live feed, hatchery techniques, health, nutrition, engineering, economics, and public policy.(Format: Lecture 3 Hours, Laboratory 3 Hours) (Exclusion: BIOL 3991 Principles of Aquaculture)

BIOL 3401 (3.00)
Animal Behaviour
Prereq: BIOL 2101; BIOL 2401; or permission of the Department
A course which will present the development, physiology, ecology and evolution of animal behaviour. Topics to be discussed will include basic concepts of behavioural organization; physiology of behaviour, learning and memory phenomena; behaviour of communication; reproductive behaviour and mating systems; spatial distribution patterns and social systems; migrations and orientation mechanisms; feeding and anti-predator behaviours. Field excursions and laboratory exercises will permit students to observe and to quantify different behaviours in a variety of animal species. (Format: Lecture 3 Hours, Laboratory 3 Hours)

BIOL 3421 (3.00)
Biogeography
Prereq: GENS 2421; GENS 2431; or permission of the Department
This course explores the links between the geomorphology and climatology of a region and the plant-animal environments through a biogeographical approach to ecological studies. It focuses on the geography of plants including environmental controls of plant distributions and the functional and historical aspects of plant communities. [Note 1: This course is cross-listed with GENS 3421 and may therefore count as three credits in either discipline.] (Format: Lecture 3 Hours, Laboratory 3 Hours) (Exclusion: GEOG 3421)

BIOL 3451 (3.00)
Entomology
Prereq: BIOL 2401; or permission of the Department
Insects surpass all other organisms in their diversity and numbers, comprising over two thirds of the earth's known animals. This course will introduce students to this class of organisms by covering the following six areas: structure, function classification and phylogeny, behaviour and ecology. Throughout the course, evolutionary forces influencing the animals and systems involved will be stressed. Discussions will emphasize the use of the comparative methods to determine what these forces might be. (Format: Lecture 3 Hours, Laboratory/Field Trip 3 Hours)

BIOL 3501 (3.00)
Native Flora (vascular Plants)
Prereq: BIOL 2301; or permission of the Department
A field-oriented course on identification, taxonomy, and ecology of vascular plants. (Format: Lecture 3 Hours, Laboratory/Field Trip 3 Hours)

BIOL 3511 (3.00)
Invertebrate Zoology
Prereq: BIOL 2401; or permission of the Department
This course investigates in an evolutionary framework the variation in body plan, physiology, reproduction, and ecology for the more than thirty invertebrate phyla. (Format: Lecture 3 Hours, Laboratory 3 Hours) (Exclusion: BIOL 4511)

BIOL 3601 (3.00)
Ecological Genetics
Prereq: BIOL 2601; BIOL 2801; or permission of the Department
This course investigates theoretical and observed changes in ecologically significant traits. It explores the connections between ecological properties of populations and evolutionary forces at work through the study of population structure, mathematical treatment of models, quantitative traits, and natural selection on phenotypic traits. (Format: Lecture 3 Hours)

BIOL 3621 (3.00)
Applied Genetics
Prereq: BIOL 2601; or permission of the Department
This course explores how genetic technologies can be used to solve current problems in biology, ranging from ecology to medicine. It teaches skills in current genetic technologies including some or all of: polymerase chain reaction (PCR), DNA extraction, gel electrophoresis, cytology, in situ hybridization, immunocytology, data mining, bioinformatics, conventional light microscopy, fluorescent microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and related techniques. (Format: Integrated Lecture and Laboratory, 5 Hours)

BIOL 3631 (3.00)
Embryology
Prereq: BIOL 2401; or permission of the Department
The course provides a foundation to the rapidly expanding field of Developmental Biology, which draws upon the disciplines of Cell Biology, Genetics, and Molecular Biology. This course focuses on the structural changes exhibited during the development, differentiation, and growth of organisms. Gametogenesis, fertilization, and embryogensis are closely examined in a variety of model organisms. Laboratory exercises are aimed at reinforcing the student's understanding of the concepts and stages of development.(Format: Lecture 3 Hours, Laboratory 3 hours) (Exclusion: BIOL 3311)

BIOL 3641 (3.00)
Genetic Regulation of Development
Prereq: BIOL 2601; or permission of the Department
This course focuses on the mechanisms responsible for controlling development. Topics may include signaling pathways, homeotic genes, epigenetic gene regulation, and applications including developmental diseases, cloning, and stem cells. (Format: Lecture 3 Hours) (Exclusion: BIOL 3311)

BIOL 3651 (3.00)
Introduction to Ornithology
Prereq: BIOL 2101; BIOL 2401; or permission of the Department
An introduction to the study of birds through lectures, laboratories and field trips. All of the bird families represented in the Maritime region will be discussed, with special emphasis on anatomy, structural adaptations, behaviour and physiology. The species composing the bird communities of the Sackville area will be examined during field trips. (Format: Lecture 3 Hours, Laboratory/Field Trip 3 Hours)

BIOL 3711 (3.00)
Biochemical Ecology
Prereq: BIOL 2101; BIOC 2001; or permission of the Biology Department
This course deals with the biochemistry of interactions between animals, plants and microorganisms that occur in the natural environment. It places strong emphasis on the role of so-called "secondary metabolites" or "natural products" such as alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, etc., in the insect-plant, vertebrate-plant, plant-plant and vertebrate-vertebrate relationships. (Format: Seminar 3 Hours) [Note 1: This course is cross-listed with BIOC 3711 and may therefore count as three credits in either discipline.]

BIOL 3751 (3.00)
Comparative Chordate Anatomy
Prereq: BIOL 2401; or permission of the Department
A lecture and laboratory course in which the structure, function and diversity of vertebrate animals will be examined and compared. It will discuss successive modifications of structural and functional systems found in vertebrates, and speculate on the survival value of these systems and on their relationships to contemporary environments. (Format: Lecture 3 Hours, Laboratory 3 Hours)

BIOL 3781 (3.00)
Tropical Marine Biology
Prereq: BIOL 2101; 2401; or permission of the Department
This course introduces the fauna, flora and complex ecological and behavioural interactions of organisms in tropical habitats and allows independent research in such habitats. It includes on-site exploration of coral reefs, reef lagoons, mangrove swamps and rocky shores. [Note 1: The field component of this course usually takes place at a location in the Caribbean. Enrollment is limited and students should be aware of the additional costs of travel and participation fees.] (Format: Lecture 3 Hours, Field Trip; (Exclusion: BIOL 4701)

BIOL 3801 (3.00)
Theoretical and Evolutionary Ecology
Prereq: Third-year standing; BIOL 2101; BIOL 2701; or permission of the Department
This course evaluates theories of population and evolutionary ecology that were introduced in BIOL 2101. Using a suite of mathematical and simulation techniques, it explores the effects of specific parameters on the predicted outcomes of evolutionary models and ecological models such as population growth, competition, predation, and community. The course assesses the limitations, application, and interpretation of outcomes for each examined model. (Format: Lecture 3 Hours)

BIOL 3811 (3.00)
Conservation Biology
Prereq: BIOL 2101; or permission of the Department
The field of conservation biology applies to the principles of ecology, biogeography, and population genetics to the mitigation of human impact and the maintenance of global biodiversity. The course will familiarize the student with the concepts and principles of conservation biology and will encourage active debate about threats to ecological integrity and the ways scientists attempt to cope with such threats. (Format: Lecture 3 Hours)

BIOL 3911 (3.00)
Plants and Human Society
Prereq: Third-year standing; 3 credits from BIOL; or permission of the Department
This course investigates the interactions between plants and human societies from the introduction of agriculture until the present. It includes the consideration of the evolution of vascular plants, especially those important to agriculture and forestry. It emphasizes the origins of agriculture on various continents and discusses economic botany and the present day commercial uses of plants. It also considers interrelations between plants and societies in dietary, cultural and religious connotations. Finally, the course considers world food shortages, either present or potential, and possible ways to alleviate these. (Format: Lecture 3 Hours)

BIOL 3941 (3.00)
Plant Physiology
Prereq: 3 credits from BIOL 2301, BIOC 2001; or permission of the Department
This course presents a general introduction to the physiology of plants. Topics discussed include photosynthesis, from the level of light entrapment to that of the fixation of carbon dioxide; translocation of sugars and the storage of energy rich food reserves; transpiration and water loss from leaves; water uptake and transport within the plant; plant defense from perception of biotic or abiotic stress to the plant response; and mineral nutrition including uptake, transport, distribution, and use of nutrients. (Format: Lecture 3 Hours, Laboratory 3 Hours)

BIOL 3991 (3.00)
Special Topic in Biology
This course either focuses on topics not covered by the current course offerings in a department or program or offers the opportunity to pilot a course that is being considered for inclusion in the regular program. (Format: Variable) [Note 1: Prerequisite set by the Department/Program when the topic and level are announced. Note 2: When a Department or Program intends to offer a course under this designation, it must submit course information, normally at least three months in advance, to the Dean. Note 3: Students may register for BIOL 3991 more than once, provided the subject matter differs.]

BIOL 4101 (3.00)
Behavioural Ecology
Prereq: BIOL 2801; BIOL 3401; or permission of the Department
A course to explore the relationships between animal behaviour and ecology, emphasizing the behavioural strategies which animals have evolved to enhance their survival and to increase their reproductive success. Topics such as foraging, living in groups, resource defence, sexual selection, parental care, mating systems, altruism and communication will be discussed within a neo-Darwinian framework using optimality models and game theory. (Format: Lecture 3 Hours)

BIOL 4111 (3.00)
Field Ecology
Prereq: BIOL 2101; 3 credits from BIOL 2701, 4711; or permission of the Department
This course introduces the basic principles of field ecology research, experimental design, and data analysis It considers various techniques used in quantitative field ecology, including the design of observational and manipulative studies, and methods used to quantify abundance of plants and animals, implementing these in a wide range of environments during the field week. (Format: Field course, Lecture 3 Hours) [Note 1: This course requires a 6-day field course component in August as well as regular class meetings through the term.]

BIOL 4151 (3.00)
Virology
Prereq: Third year standing; BIOL 2201; BIOL 2601; or permission of the Department
This course introduces the fundamental features of animal, bacterial, and plant viruses. It covers the biochemical genetic features of viral structure and replication, techniques used in studying viruses, the evolution of viruses, cell defence against viruses, the history of viruses as the causal agents of animal and plant disease, and current antiviral strategies. It also discusses the role of viruses as agents of evolutionary change, and their use in modern molecular genetics. [Note 1: This course is cross-listed with BIOC 4151 and may therefore count as three credits in either discipline.](Format: Lecture 3 Hours)

BIOL 4201 (3.00)
Environmental Physiology and Biochemistry of Animals
Prereq: 3 credits from BIOL 3201, BIOL 3211, BIOC 2001; or permission of the Department
This course in animal physiology examines the physiological and biochemical strategies animals use to survive in diverse, often stressful environments. Using primary literature from scientific journals, this course focuses on animal responses to environmental conditions such as hypoxia/anoxia, high and low temperatures, overwintering, altitude, environmental pollutants, osmotic stress and UV radiation. [Note 1: Weekly discussion groups on recent topical papers form a major component of this course.] [Note 2: This course is cross-listed with BIOC 4201 and may therefore count as three credits in either discipline.] (Format: Seminar 3 hours) (Exclusion: Any version of BIOL 4201 previously offered with a different title)

BIOL 4211 (3.00)
Endocrinology
Prereq: BIOL 3211; or permission of the Department
This course investigates vertebrate hormone systems and may examine some aspects of invertebrate systems. It discusses hormone synthesis, control of secretion, modes of secretion and general mechanisms of action and examines specific hormone systems such as the hypothalamus-pituitary axis, renin-angiotensin system, and pituitary-adrenal axis. (Format: Seminar 3 Hours)

BIOL 4221 (3.00)
Exercise Physiology
Prereq: 3 credits from BIOL 3201, BIOL 3211; or permission of the Department
This course explores the metabolic and systemic basis of exercise, the physiology of training and performance and exercise under special conditions such as environment and disease. In addition to studying these fundamentals of exercise physiology, this course delves into recent research and advancements in the field. (Format: Seminar 3 Hours)

BIOL 4311 (3.00)
Neurophysiology
Prereq: BIOL 3211
This course investigates advanced topics in neurophysiology including neuro- and glio-transmission, the physiology and plasticity of synapses, and neuronal circuits that underlie behaviour. It also discusses the development and pathophysiology of the nervous system. (Format: Lecture/Seminar 3 Hours) (Exclusion: BIOL 4991 Special Topics in Neurophysiology)

BIOL 4371 (3.00)
Advanced Topics in Marine Science
Prereq: Third-year standing; BIOL 2101; or permission of the Department;
This course provides the opportunity for in-depth research of selected topics from the most current and progressive areas of marine science such as advances in biological, geological, chemical and physical oceanography and methodologies such as genomic approach to assessment of oceanic biodiversity and application of remote technology in marine exploration of the deep sea. The course emphasizes specific topics of global significance such as interactions between ocean and atmosphere, integrative and sustainable aquaculture, invasive biology, and marine pollution. (Format: Lecture 3 hours) (Exclusion: Any version of BIOL 4371 previously offered with a different title)

BIOL 4401 (3.00)
Evolutionary Biology of Sex and Reproduction
Prereq: BIOL 2801; BIOL 3401; or permission of the Department
This is a seminar/discussion course on the evolution of sexuality and various reproductive patterns. Topics covered will include (but not be limited to): what is sex, sexual and asexual reproduction, asexual reproduction and parthenogenesis, the role of sex in evolution, Muller's Ratchet vs. the Red Queen, genetic and epigenetic sex determination, sexual selection, mating strategies of males and females, role of parasites in the evolution of sex, fertilization strategies and hermaphroditism. (Format: Seminar 3 Hours)

BIOL 4411 (3.00)
Ecology and Biology of Fishes
Prereq: BIOL 2101; BIOL 2401; 3 credits from BIOL 2701, GENS 2431, MATH 2311, PSYC 2001; or permission of the Department
This course provides an overview of the general biology of fish-like chordates, with particular emphasis on the teleost fishes and on adaptations that have allowed fishes to become the most evolutionary successful group of vertebrates. Topics include: aspects of form and function, ecology and behaviour, and fisheries management. (Format: Lecture 3 Hours, Laboratory 3 Hours/Field Trip 3 Hours) (Exclusion: BIOL 3411)

BIOL 4621 (3.00)
Genes, Cells, and Disease
Prereq: BIOL 2601; 3 credits from BIOL 3211, BIOL 3621, BIOC 3031; or permission of the Department
This course examines the genetic basis of cellular processes and organelles such as telomeres, nuclear architecture, cytoskeleton, intracellular transport, the extracellular matrix, cell cycle control, and the contribution to disease when these processes are abnormal.(Format: Lecture 3 Hours) (Exclusion: BIOL 3991 Genes, Cells, and Disease; BIOL 4991 Genes, Cells, and Disease)

BIOL 4711 (3.00)
Advanced Design and Statistical Analysis
Prereq: 3 credits from MATH 2311, PSYC 2011, BIOL 2701, GENS 2431; or permission of the Department
This course investigates how to design studies with clear hypotheses, select appropriate statistical methods, and carry out the analyses, applying the techniques to real data sets. It reviews a variety of statistical techniques including advanced ANOVA and regression, techniques for categorical data, resampling methods, MANOVA, and other multivariate techniques. It also considers experimental design issues such as power analysis and pseudoreplication. (Format: Lecture 3 Hours, Laboratory 2 Hours) [Note: Throughout the course, data analyses are conducted using R.]

BIOL 4903 (3.00)
Current Advances in Biology
Coreq: BIOL 4990
A seminar course for Honours students in Biology which will critically evaluate a wide range of topics from the current literature in all branches of biological science. Students will be expected to deliver seminars on topics outside their thesis area and present preliminary thesis results. (Format: Lecture/Seminar 3 Hours)

BIOL 4950 (6.00)
Independent Study in Biology
This course permits senior students, under the direction of faculty members, to pursue their interest in areas not covered, or not covered in depth, by other courses through a program of independent study. (Format: Independent Study) [Note 1: Permission of the Department/Program Advisor. Students must obtain consent of an instructor who is willing to be a supervisor and must register for the course prior to the last day for change of registration in the term during which the course is being taken. Note 2: A program on Independent Study cannot duplicate subject matter covered through regular course offerings. Note 3: Students may register for BIOL 4950/51 more than once, provided the subject matter differs.]

BIOL 4951 (3.00)
Independent Study in Biology
This course permits senior students, under the direction of faculty members, to pursue their interest in areas not covered, or not covered in depth, by other courses through a program of independent study. (Format: Independent Study) [Note 1: Permission of the Department/Program Advisor. Students must obtain consent of an instructor who is willing to be a supervisor and must register for the course prior to the last day for change of registration in the term during which the course is being taken. Note 2: A program on Independent Study cannot duplicate subject matter covered through regular course offerings. Note 3: Students may register for BIOL 4950/51 more than once, provided the subject matter differs.]

BIOL 4990 (6.00)
Honours Thesis
Coreq: BIOL 4903
The thesis requires a report on one or more laboratory, library or field investigations carried out by arrangement with and under the direction of an appropriate member of the staff. This course is open only to candidates for Honours in Biology in their senior year. A minimum grade of B is required in this course for successful completion of an honours degree. (Format: Independent Study/Thesis) [Note 1: Consent of supervising staff member prior to registration and permission of the Program Advisor is required]

BIOL 4991 (3.00)
Special Topic in Biology
This course either focuses on topics not covered by the current course offerings in a department or program or offers the opportunity to pilot a course that is being considered for inclusion in the regular program. (Format: Variable) [Note 1: Prerequisite set by the Department/Program when the topic and level are announced. Note 2: When a Department or Program intends to offer a course under this designation, it must submit course information, normally at least three months in advance, to the Dean. Note 3: Students may register for BIOL 4991 more than once, provided the subject matter differs.]